Internet Archive's 25th Anniversary Logo. Search icon An illustration of a magnifying glass. User icon An illustration of a person's head and chest. Sign up Log in. Web icon An illustration of a computer application window Wayback Machine Texts icon An illustration of an open book. Books Video icon An illustration of two cells of a film strip.
Video Audio icon An illustration of an audio speaker. Audio Software icon An illustration of a 3. In fact, relationships are the foundation of child development.
Through relationships, your child learns vital information about their world. Your child also learns by seeing relationships among other people — for example, by seeing how you behave with other family members. Play is fun for your child. From Birth to Five Years, based on the pioneering work of Mary Sheridan, is widely regarded as the go-to reference for health, education and social care professionals, or anyone concerned with the developmental progress of pre-school children.
In this new fourth edition, the text has been developed to further align it with current child development philosophies and practices, and to support the wider group of professionals that are now required to take steps for promoting children's development as part of their assessment and management plans. This book aims to improve the clinical management of children with developmental disorders, through providing the full range of developmental attainments, methods of observation, and advice about when to seek help.
To complement this book, a new companion volume, From Birth to Five Years: Practical Developmental Examination , offers a step-by-step 'how to' guide, including guidance on enquiry and observation, how to chart typical and atypical patterns, and 'red flags' for recognising significant delay or abnormality. To consolidate and expand on the practical and theoretical information across both books, a new companion website is available at www. Please sign in to write a review. Sheridan Technical High.
Cause-and-effect play Showing and sharing 2 years 18 months 12 months 9 months Cognitive sequence 5 months Table 7 Cognitive and social sequences of play. Intent looking. Imitation of facial expressions. Actions become more purposeful through contingent responses.
From the age of 18 months, children demonstrate an increasing awareness of other children and respond in increasingly sophisticated ways, modifying their behaviour in the context of peer interaction Table 8. Development of friendships Table 8 Stages in development of friendships. Play includes sustained adventures, often including favourite characters from books or films, or everyday events. In early childhood, siblings often show a mix of concern and hostility towards one another.
Teasing of parents and older siblings emerges from around 15 months, with children engaging in increasingly elaborate actions to annoy. There is evidence of strong social behaviour and play 79 attachments to older siblings from early in the second year.
Siblings are generally able to cooperate to some degree in play by 3 years. By 4 years, children have developed the capacity to provide emotional support to distressed younger siblings. Assessing play and social behaviour Descriptions of behaviour in the home and other social settings can be obtained from parents. Pretending and speech emerge at around the same time and are closely related developmental skills.
Significant delay in social and behaviour and play can be associated with childhood autism Baird et al. The emphasis should be on creating opportunities rather than direct teaching of skills. Carpendale, J. Oxford: Blackwell. Cohen, D. Dunn, J. Harris, P. Sheridan, M. Harding and L. It is facilitated by the concurrently developing language, memory and improving processing ability or cognition and is influenced by emotional experience, attachment with care-givers and inherited temperament Figure 7.
In the early pre-school period, children begin to carry out intentional tasks or activities. They seem to have a plan when they pick up objects and toys. They start with simple activities such as stacking bricks, scribbling with a crayon, feeding themselves or a doll and, in time, move to more complex constructions, drawing and play sequences.
To succeed in such planned and sequential activities, they must remember their plan in their working memory, organise their actions, overcome obstacles, manage their frustrations and emotions and ignore other distractions.
Developing attention Cognitive development Emotional regulation Language ability Memory Planning and organising Social behaviour Self-regulation Attachment Temperament Figure 7 Factors influencing self-regulation. It has a crucial role for survival and socialisation. Infants express their needs and distress through crying and socialise by smiling. Over the next few years, children develop refined emotional understanding, expression and ways of regulating their emotions Table 9.
Within the first few months, infants show the ability to modulate their emotions by doing self-comforting activities such as sucking their thumb or seeking comfort from their carers. By 18 months, toddlers avoid or ignore emotionally arousing situations by talking to themselves or moving on to do something else. By 4 to 5 years, children know that they can hide their emotions or show a different emotion if need be. However, it can still remain particularly challenging for children to deal with different expectations around how to express emotions at home and at school.
The role of parents and carers changes from initially providing comfort and soothing to providing emotional support and to conveying social expectations for emotional expression. Development of attention and self-organising ability Within the first few weeks of birth, infants begin to turn towards faces, bright toys or interesting sounds.
At this stage, their attention is brief and elicits a reflexive response. But, to remember and learn, infants must look or listen more than just briefly. This process of sustained or focused attention starts as early as the age of 3 months. Initially, the attention is sustained only for 5—10 seconds. While paying attention, children look interested and calm. With further development, children need to spend less time looking at simple things and relatively longer at complex things or activities.
When the mental effort becomes too much for their developmental ability, their attention is broken. By 4 years of age, children are able to sustain their attention to learn, plan a sequence of actions, inhibit their impulse to respond to interesting but irrelevant attractions and manage their emotions to stay on the task.
They are now beginning to selfregulate their behaviour with gradually decreasing requirement for adults to guide and supervise their activities. Children mature in these abilities at different rates. Disruption in the development of self-regulation is one of the reasons for children to be disorganised, impulsive, defiant, easily frustrated and generally difficult.
If such difficulties persist into early school years, a detailed assessment 84 assessing developmental progress Table 10 Stages of attention development. Stage 1: First Year High level of distractibility towards dominant stimuli Stage 2: Second year Rigid attention on a task of their own choice. Resistant to interference. Stage 3: Third year Single channelled attention Attention must be fully obtained to shift to a different task. Stage 4: Fourth year Early integrated attention Children can control their own focus of attention — need to look towards the carer to listen.
Stage 6: Flexible and sustained attention Based on Cooper, Moodley and Reynell should be arranged to consider their general and language development, behaviour, attention, emotional and social well-being and other aspects of their health to include their hearing and vision Richards The praise and support that children get from their parents is an important resource for self-regulation. Some children need more support than others and for longer times. It can be a very different challenge for children with different temperaments or for children attention, emotions and self-regulation 85 with a variety of diagnosed disabilities and for their care-givers.
Advice may be available from local parenting support groups or child mental health services. Further reading 86 Saarni, C. New York: Guilford. Shonkoff, J. Sroufe, L. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Taylor, E. Clinics in Developmental Medicine London: MacKeith Press. It has a stable organising role for social and emotional behaviours. A secure attachment relationship with the parent helps the infant form a stable working model of self and others Bretherton and Waters Attachment behaviours become increasingly differentiated with age Table Behaviours are also person- and context-dependent: e.
Development of attachment behaviour Table 11 Attachment characteristics. Fourth year onwards Relationship based on abstract considerations such as affection and trust. As children reach school age, their social world expands to include other relationships, attachment becomes less dependent on literal and more on symbolic proximity, and they can tolerate longer periods of separation. There is often a reversal to earlier stages during periods of distress. They may be upset when the care-giver leaves, are happy to see the care-giver return and recover quickly from any distress.
They are not 88 assessing developmental progress easily comforted and both seek comfort and resist efforts by the care-givers to comfort them. If they get upset alone they are comforted as easily by a stranger as by a parent. Their behaviour is often confused or even contradictory, and they often appear disoriented Main and Soloman Secure infants are able to use their mother as a base to explore, are related to sensitive and consistent parenting and have a generally better social and psychological functioning in later life than insecure infants.
Strong or weak attachment behaviours do not necessarily represent strong or weak attachments. Children show strong or weak attachment behaviours depending on intensity or the strength of the situation in which these are activated and not on how well or poorly they are attached to the person. A securely attached child may greet the mother by running up to her and hugging her in one situation and by smiling and waving in another.
The strength of the attachment with a care-giver depends on the history of relationship with that care-giver and is reflected in the level of security it provides to the child. Interpreting attachment behaviours A developing sense of self as an individual is important because the way individuals view themselves appears to influence the overall feelings of well-being and competence. The sense of self The development of self attachment and the development of self 89 emerges early in infancy and is an ongoing and complex process.
By 4 to 5 months of age, infants express themselves through anger. From 9 to 12 months of age, infants begin to show joint attention with others to share their interests, indicating that they have a sense of separation from others.
Their emerging recognition of the self becomes clearer by 18—20 months of age when they recognise their image in a mirror as themselves; and when they notice a dot or colour on their face, they try to remove it from their face and not from the mirror — as they would have done earlier, indicating that they realise that the mirror image is a self-reflection. By the age of 2 years, they begin to pick themselves out from pictures, show emotions of embarrassment and shame and begin to self-assert themselves through temper tantrums.
By 3—4 years, children understand themselves in terms of concrete, observable characteristics related to physical attributes and their relationships. In the pre-school years, children tend to think they are as they wish to be, such as being good at something.
In the coming years, they begin the process of comparing themselves with others. Some children, when they face a difficulty or a failure, blame themselves and stop trying whilst others persevere. Children who are supported in verbalising, analysing and describing their negative beliefs about themselves, given opportunities to succeed and praised for achieving success, have fewer problem behaviours and a better sense of self-esteem.
Further reading Damon, W. Parkes, C. Newborns are able to discriminate between the general direction of a sound left or right, far or near , but orienting towards more subtle variations in location improves over the next 6 months.
By 10—12 months, however, infant sound perception becomes much more adult-like, with reduced perception of sounds in other languages. Children growing up in bilingual families, however, maintain their ability for sound discrimination for the languages used.
Development of hearing behaviour Significant sensorineural hearing loss SNHL , requiring a hearing aid, is present in about 16 per 10, children. Conductive hearing loss is extremely common. Parental smoking is a risk factor for children developing OME see Box 8. Early identification Delayed identification of children with congenital or acquired hearing loss may result in deficits in speech and language development, poor educational achievement and behaviour and emotional difficulties.
Early identification of hearing loss and appropriate intervention has been shown to prevent many of these adverse consequences. Parents often report suspicion of hearing loss, inattention or erratic response to sound before hearing loss is confirmed. A thorough general examination is an essential part of evaluation of a child with hearing loss. Findings associated with hearing impairment include heterochromia of the irises, malformation of the auricle or ear canal, dimpling or skin tags around the auricle, cleft lip or palate, asymmetry or hypoplasia of the facial structures, microcephaly and abnormal pigmentation of hair or skin.
Table 12 Audiological tests for infants and children. A soundproof environment and trained testers are essential. These may be severe, though treatable, or may require early developmental guidance. Developmental visual behaviours during early childhood Table 13 provide a basis for eliciting concerns from parents Appendix 2 and for making observations to identify children in need of further specialist examination.
However, these are not tests for vision and can seriously underestimate the severity of any vision defect. Table 13 Stages of development of visual behaviour. Birth Turns eyes towards window or any large light source.
First month Stares at object close to their face and shows special interest in human face. Follows activities in the surroundings. Recognises carers and familiar toys from across the room. Points to demand nearby objects. The most common vision disorders among children are squint, amblyopia and optical problems impairing visual acuity.
At least 2 per cent of children have amblyopia, a condition of reduced vision in which the eye itself is healthy, but because of a difference between vision in each eye or squint the brain has either suppressed or failed to develop the visual function.
It is usually unilateral but rarely may be bilateral. About 1 per cent of infants and 3—7 per cent of young children have a squint. Children with poor vision require specialist examination of eyes, developmental guidance and early educational advice by specialist teachers. The Sonksen Silver test for visual acuity can be used from age 3 years and older children. Each eye must be tested separately, with the other eye occluded.
Some squints are not apparent on simple inspection and the cover—uncover test or the alternate cover test may be used. The performance and interpretation of these tests is not easy and orthoptic assessment should be arranged in case of doubt and when there are parental concerns or relevant family history.
Does your baby display the following characteristics? Your health visitor will perform a routine hearing test on your baby between six and eight months of age. Squint is now definitely abnormal, however slight and temporary. Information on language development and disorders and how to get help. Provider of information and direct services. Useful information sheets on early communication and on development of reading and writing.
Also resources on attachment. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Amiel-Tison C. Baird G. Baron-Cohen, S. Bly, L. Tucson, Ariz. Brazelton, T. Cambridge: MacKeith Press. Bretherton, I. Chicago, Ill. Bruner, J. New York: W. Bzoch, M. Austin, Tex. Cooper, J. London: Edward Arnold. Fenson, L. Baltimore, Md. Frankenburg, W. Denver, Col. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Holm, A. Dodd ed. London: Whurr, pp. London: I CAN. Locke, A. Main, M. Brazelton and M. Yogman eds , Affective Development in Infancy. Norwood, NJ: Ablex. Milani-Comparetti, A. Newson, J. Bullowa ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. Champaign, Ill: Human Kinetics. Prechtl, H. London: McKeith Press. Bremner, A.
Slater and G. Butterworth eds , Infant Development: Recent Advances. Hove: Psychology Press, pp. Richards, J. Hopkins ed. Robson, P. Perlmutter ed.
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